On the Nature of Man
De natura hominis
Nemesius of Emesa (fl. c. 390) was bishop of Emesa (Homs, Syria) near the end of the fourth century; almost nothing else is known of him, yet his one surviving work became among the most widely read Christian books of the Middle Ages, East and West.
On the Nature of Man joins Christian doctrine to Greek philosophical psychology — against Platonists, Stoics, and physicians alike, Nemesius argues the soul is an immortal rational substance, not blood, breath, harmony, or number, and defends free will and providence.
This volume holds the opening soul arguments (1.1–3.1).
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Life belongs to the soul in act, not to the body in potency§1.1
1.1Whatever comes to be comes from the soul. A body that exists only in potency cannot house life by itself. Elsewhere one may possess a power and leave it idle — sight unused — yet the soul admits no such idle possession. Even in sleep psychic work continues: nourishment, growth, imagination, breath, the marks of life. So life is never a mere potency waiting to be switched on; it is always already in act. The soul's form-giving is the soul itself. Life is native to the soul and reaches the body only by share. To treat bodily health as if it were the soul's life is a sophistic slide from body to soul.
Greek · §1.1
ἐξ αὐτοῦ τὶ γώεσϑαι. εἰ δὲ καὶ σῶμα δυνάμει ἐστὶ, πῶς πὸ δυνάμει σῶμα δυνάμει ζωὴν ἔχειν ἐν ἑαυτῷ δύναται ἄλλως τὲ, ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν ἄλλων δυνατὸν, ἔχοντά τι, μὴ χρίσϑαι αὐτῷ" οἷον, ὄψιν ἔχοντα, μὴ Χρῆσϑαι αὐτῇ" ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς ψυχῆς ἀδύνατον. οὐδὲ γὰρ ὁ καθεύδων ἄνευ ψυχικῆς ἐνεργείας ἐστί. καὶ γὰρ τρέφεται καὶ αὔξεται καὶ φαντασιοῦται καὶ ἀναπνεῖ, ὅπερ μάλιστα τῆς ζωῦς ἐστι πεκαύριον. ἐκ τούτων οὖν Φανερὲν, ἕτι δυνάμει τὸ ζῆν οὐ φὲ δύναται προςεῖναί τινι, ἀλλὰ πάντως ἐνεργείᾳ. προηγουμέμένως γὰρ τὸ εἰδεποιεῦν τὴν ψυχὴν οὐδὲν ἄλλο ἐστὶν, αλλ᾽ ἃ ἡ ἐμή. τῇ μὲν γὲρ ψυχῇ σὐμφυτός ἐστῶ ἡ ζωή" τῷ δὲ σώματι κατα μέϑεξω. ὁ λέγων τείνυνι τὴν ὑγείαν ἀνά-.
The soul receives contraries and so is not the body's entelechy§1.2
1.2A body can take on opposed qualities in its matter, but not in its form: change the form and you change the thing. Contraries therefore sit in the underlying body, not in the form as such. That is why the soul cannot be the body's entelechy. It stands as its own complete, bodiless substance, able to receive virtue and vice — opposed states no mere form could host. Call the soul an entelechy and you make it motionless in itself, moved only by accident; yet the body does not move itself. Whatever first moves it must come from the soul.
Greek · §1.2
παρὰ μέρος τῶν ἐναντίων ἐςὶ δεκτική᾽ καὶ δὲ κατὰ τὸ εἶδος, εὐδαμῶς. ἐὰν γαρ κ κατὰ τὸ εἶδες διαφορὰ μεταλλαγῆ, μεταλλάττεται καὶ τὸ θεν. ὥςτε οὐχ, καὶ κατὰ τὸ εἶδος οὐσία τῶν ἐναντίων ἐστὶ δεκτιεὲν ἀλλ᾽ ἡ κατὰ τὸ ὑποκείμενον, τουτέστιν, καὶ σωματική. οὐ δύναται τοίνυν ἡ ψυχὴ κατ᾿ οὐδένα τρέπον ἐντελέχεια τοῦ σώματος εἶναι" ἀλλ᾽ οὐσία αὐτοτελῆς, ἀσώαατος, παρὰ μέρος γὰρ ἐπιδέχεται τὰ ἐναντίκ, κακίαν καὶ ἀρετὴν, ὅπερ οὐκ ἠδύνατο τὸ εἶδος ἐπιδέξασθαι. ἔπειτά (σιν, ἐντελέΓχμὰ μαι ῥήροο : χείαν οὖσαν τὴν Ψυχὴν, ἀκίνητον εἶναι καϑ᾽ ἑαντὴν, κινεῖσθαι δὲ κατὰ συμθεβ κές. οὐδὲν δὲ ἀπεικὸς, ἀκίνητον οὖσαν κινεῖν ἡμᾶς. καὶ γὰρ τὸ κάλλος, ἀκίνητον ἓν, κινεῖ ἠαᾶς. ΚΣ γα) ο δη Η ῥα ἐμὴ 5 ἀλλ᾽ εἰ καὶ τοῦτο, ακίνητον ἐν, κινεῖ" ἀλλὰ τὸ ψύσιν ἔχον πινεῖσϑαι κινεῖ, καὶ οὐχὶ τὸ ἀκέητεν. εἰ τείνων καὶ νο. ᾽ ῇ μα κ Π τὸ σῶμα καϑ᾽ ἑαυτὸ κύπσιν εἶχεν, οὐδὲν ἵν ἄτοπον αὐτὸ Υ ΑΚ. ΙΕΟΤ, ΕΤ ΑΝΊΜΛΌΥ. τῶν ἐναντίων ἐστὶ ] ἐναντίων α ππαπ. τεῦ. ἵπ τπαγρῖπε εχρ];οατυγς ὑγείας καὶ νόσου. Μοχτητ ]ο Ῥοΐε οχοήοτηπι οὐξαμῶς αὐ ἶδος. Δ. 3. καὶ δὲ κατὰ τὸ εἶδο;, οὐδαμῶς] Όση ρεείες αἠξέπι εἰ Γοτπα πεγιαφμαπι. ΛΙν καὶ δὲ αἱ ἐστὶ δεκτικὴ ονονει Να]. ἐὲν γὸρ ἡ πατὰ τὸ εἶδος] κὲν γὰρ κατὰ τὸ εἶδος, Ν. Μοκ ἴάοπι : καὶ ἐικᾷορὲ καταλλαγῆ. Αα ἀοίηθο: ὥςτε οὐχὶ κατὸ τὸ εἶδος ἡ ουσίκ --ἀλλὰ κατῶ τὸ ὑποκείμ. Δ. 1.
First motion comes from the soul; the heavens cannot rest§1.3
1.3Where does the body's motion come from, if not the soul? The body is not a self-mover. Appeals to elemental lightness and heaviness do not give a first beginning of motion; they give a later account. Light and heavy things do come to rest in their places — so those qualities are not perpetual motion itself. Still less can thinking, judging, and forming opinions be the work of weight. The world, the sun, and the moon move by nature and cannot naturally stand still. So too the soul: by nature it is always in motion, and natural rest would be its undoing.
Greek · §1.3
κινεῖσθαι ὑπὸ ἀκωήτου" νῦν δὲ ἀδύνατον, τὸ ἀκίνητον ὑπὸ ἀκπήτου κεεῖσϑαι" πόϑεν οὖν τῷ σώματι τὸ κινεῖσθαι, εἶ μὴ ἀπὸ τῆς ψυχῆς; οὐ γὰρ αὐτοκίνητόν ἐστι τὸ σῶμα. πρώτην οὖν γένεσιν κρήσεως ειη. πόϑεν οὖν --κνεῖσϑαι] αὑίωαι. ΜΝ. τ. Μοχ ἴθεσι, ἐπὰ νχῖς.' πρώτην οὖν πρώτην γοῦν. Α.α. Μο κήησιν γενέσεως, Μ. τ. εἴ μὲν γὰρ τὰ μὴ κινούμενον ἐκίνει πρώτην τὰ αἰε Ι. ἐξηγεῖται. πόϑεν] ἴπιοτ ἧπο Ἦαεο γοοη]νυ]α βἰιήῖε: πόϑεν οὖν τὲ κινεῖσϑαι εἰ μὴ απὸ ψυχῆς; οὐ γὰρ αὐτοκίνητόν ἐστὲ τὸ σῶμα. Ν. δεί ο απιε ]υσία κοῦφα ὄντα τῇ φύσει. Ὦ.1. φύσει αὈεῖι. Ναὶ), Λίοκ ἡ απιο κουφότης αἰνεῖι. ΝΜ. τ. οἳ ἵπιετ κίνησίς ἐστιν ει οὐδέποτε αὐάῑι: ἀφ᾽ ἑαυτῶν δὲ κινεῖται. Ν. Κόησίς ἐστι τεδε ϊάλε Οοιι. εαυ ε. Οστιε ἵια οχρϊσαπάωπ.
Against those who say the soul is blood§2.1
2.1Some make the soul a body, and some of them name it blood (or breath). If soul were simply blood, quantity of blood would be quantity of soul. Yet blood is made from food and passes into flesh and the body's other parts; it is poured and divided. The soul is not emptied out that way. Even living things that seem without blood show that life is not the same as blood. Blood may serve life; it is not what the soul is.
Greek · §2.1
αἷμα, ὅσον ἂν ἧ, ψυχή ἐστε, εἴπερ ψυχὴ τὸ αἷμα. ἐκεῖνο εὖν μᾶλλον ἑπτέον, ὅτι εἰ τοῦτό ἐστι ψυχὴ, οὗ ἐξαιρουαένου ϑνήσκει τὸ ᾧῶον, πώντως καὶ τὸ (λέγκα ψυχή ἐστι καὶ αἱ χολαὶ ἀμφότεραι, ΥΑΆ. νκΟτ. ΕΤ ΑΝΙΜΑΌΥ . ἐπειδὴ τοῦ πνεύματος ἢ τοῦ αἵματος ] ἐπειϑὴ δὲ τοῦ αἵματος ἃ τοῦ πνεύματος. Α. 1.3. δαπρμίπε εἰ ρἰτίίμ. Να]. οὐκ ἐκεῖνο ῥητέον] οὐκοῦν ἐκεῖνο ῥητέον. Ὦ. . Ὑεγεαφήκασι λέγοντες" οὐκ οὖν ὅταν μέρος ] γεγράφασι λέΎοντες, ὅτι ὅταν μέρος. Ό. τ. Απιθ γεγεαφήκασι αιἰάϊε μέρος. Ν. ΝΜ. 1. Α. 3. Ιάεπι ραυ] ο ρο ἐποέέοῇ τοῦ αἵματος, Α. α. α. 3. Ν. Γοη. Να]]. ϑἰο, ίθει ἀποῤῥύε. Ῥτο εο Ἠαῦει ἐποῤξύη Α. 3. εὐ ἀπεῤῥύει Α. α. Σώματος ἱπερίμπι εἴξ. οκ εἴἴαπι γοζαὈαία, ὑπολειπόμενον αἷμα, ἀε . αἵματος. τὸ τοιοῦτον ] τὸ τοιοῦτο. Α. α. Μ. 1. ἐπὶ ΚῚ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν] Οοπο Όταεος εχ ῖρθι: Νίαπι ἐν τῷ ὁμογενεῖ Μοκ τοῦ παντός Μ. 1. εἲ ἀεϊαάε: καὶ πολύ. καὶ τὸ βραχύτατον. ὁμοίως] καὶ τὸ βεαχὸ ταὐτόν. ὁμοίως. Ὁ.ι. Ίπβεπς εἲ πιοάίεα. Όση. ΕΕ πιμἰξα εἰ ραυεϊγ , ἀλλήλων κατ' οὐσίαν ἀλλήλων κατὰ τὴν οὐσίεν. Ὁ. 3. Α.τ.3. Οοπιίπιο: οὕτω γοῦν καί. Ὁ. 1, Μοχ. ὅσον ἂν εἴη. Ν. ΝΜ. 1. Α.ᾳ. μᾶλλον λεκτέον] μᾶλλον ῥητέον. Ὁ. τ. Α. τ. α. ψυχὴ οὐκ ἐξαιρουμένου] ψυχὴ, οὗ ἐξκιρουμένου. Μ. τ, Ὁ. 1. Αἱ. α. 5. Ν. Όχ. Ο ο αὀίαέο. Όυπ. Να]]. ΕΣ ἐποῖν νὰ ἂν τούτων ἐκλείπῃ, τέλος ἐπάγει τῇ ζωῖ
Against those who say the soul is breath§2.2
2.2Others call the soul breath or air. Air is a body — spread out and shoved about. If soul were only that rush of air, life would last only while breathing lasts. The soul is not the air that enters and leaves. So the soul is not pneuma.
Greek · §2.2
πνεῦμα ο ταΐπως Ίαπιθη Πῖς 1η πε ηπαεἆαπι ]]σ)ὲ οοπῖτα εοῦ, ηΏὶ απὶππλτη ορίπαπταγ πνεῦμα αΏξ ἀέρα. ξωογονοῦν Φαίνεται Ἱ ζωογονεῖν Φαίνεται. Ὁ.1. Φαίνεται Φωαγονοῦν. Ν. αἰὀδύνατον, πολλὰ] αἀὀύνατονποτὲ πολλα. Ν. Ηαιὰ ἀυρῖο Βε ἀἸ χωρὶς τροφῆς ἔὴν οἰόντε. Ὁ. τ. Α.3. τροφῆς χωεὶς δὲν οἷών τε. Α. 1. ῃ πῶ Ν ἔπειτα πολλοὶ τῶν ἑώων ἐστὶ μὴ πίνοντα, ὡς ἐπί τινων ἀετῶν ἱστόρηται. καὶ πέρδιξ δὲ δύναται ἦν χωρὶς τοῦ πένειν. δατί δὲ μᾶλλον τὸ ὕδωρ ψυχὴ καὶ μὴ ὁ ἀὐρ; ὕδατος μὲν γαρ καὶ ἐπητολιὸ δυνατὸν ἀπεσχέσϑαι᾽ τοῦ δὲ ἀναπνεῖν τὸν ἀέρα, οὐδὲ τὸ βραχύτατον" ἀλλ' οὐδὲ ὁ ἀν Ψυχή. πολλα ᾽ Ὑάρ ἐστι, ζῶντα μὲν, μὴ ἀναπνέοντα δὲ τὸν ἀέρα, ὡς ταὶ ἕντομα πάντα, οἷον μέλιτται καὶ σφῆκες καὶ μύρμηκες καὶ τὰ ἄναιμα, καὶ τῶν ϑαλασσίων ταὶ πολλαὶ, καὶ πάντα, ὅσα οὐκ ἔχει πνεύμονα. οὐδὲν γαρ, μὴ ἔχεν πνεύμονα, ἀναπνεῖ τὸν ἀέρα" καὶ ἀντιστρέφει, οὐδὲν, μὴ ἀναπνέον τὸν ἀἔρα, πνεύμονα ἔχει.
Against those who say the soul is harmony§2.3
2.3Some say the soul is only a tuning — a harmony of the body. But if learning is recollection, the soul must already be something before this body's tuning. The soul can resist the body and govern it; a harmony does not command the lyre. Harmony grows tighter or looser; soul does not become more or less soul. Break the instrument and the tuning is gone; the soul is not dismissed with a broken frame. So the soul is not harmony. The lyre image meets the answers already given in Plato's Phaedo.
Greek · §2.3
λύρᾳ" ἐκϑετέον τὰς λύσεις τούτου, τοῖς ἐν τῶ Φαίδωνι Πλάτωνος κειμένας. μία. μἲν οὖν ἐστιν κἡὶ ἐκ τῶν προχποδεδειγμένων αὐτῷ. προαποδέδεικται γὰρ, ὅτι αἱ μαϑήσεις ἀναμνήσεις εἰσί. τοῦτο οὖν λαβων ὡς ὁμολογούμενον, κατασκευάζει τὸν λόγον οὕτως. εἰ αἱ μαϑήσεις ἀναμνήσεις εἰσὶν, ἦν ἡμῶν ἡ ψυχὴ πρὶν ἐν πῷ ἀνϑρωπείῳ εἴδει γενέσϑαι᾽ εἰ δὲ ἁρμονία ἐστὶ, πρότεϱον μὲν οὐκ ἦν, ὕστερον δὲ ἐγένετο, ἁρμοσϑέντος ποῦ σωματος. πᾶσα γοὲρ σύνϑεσις οὐκ ἄλλως ἔχει, ἢ ὡς ἔχει τὰ, 36 ἐξ ὧν σύγκειται. κοινωνία γάρ τις ἐστὶ τῶν συντιϑεμένων ΥΑ.. τκ6Οτ. ἘΤ ΑΝΙΜΑΟΥ. σιμμύας] σιμμίας. Ὁ.1. Α. 1. 3.3. Οχ. σιμίας. Ν, Μοχ, σωκράτη. Δ. 1. Ῥαι]]9 απιε οοττεχὶ δικαίκρχος, ]ο6ο δείναξχος. γ. ρ8β. 34. εἶναι ἔφασκεν] ἔφασκεν εἶναι. Ὦ. τ, Ἀ. αι 3. Ν. λύσεις τούτων ] λύσεις τούτου. Ὅ. 1. ΛΑ. τ. α. α]]. Νοχ, φαίδονι. Ὅ. τ. μία μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἐκ τῶν ] μία μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡὶ ἐκ τῶν. Ὁ. 1. Α.α.α. γὰρ, ]οοο μὲν, ΝΜ. . ]άεαι ραυ]]ο ρο Αὐ ενε εἴ. Ὀειιοπ οφυΐτωτ Νεπιεῖωε, ἰπεὶρϊε οαρ. 41. Ρα6. 388. τί οὖν, ἢ ὁ ἕς, περὶ ἐκείνον τοῦ λόγον κ. τ. λ. ΠΠῊ Εἰ αι. ρ. 364. ποῖα 21. " ἐπεὶ πρότερον] ἐστὶ, δῆλαν, ὅτι πρότερον. Οχ. ϑίπε πνέπτίοπε Μ5.
Against those who say the soul is number§2.4
2.4Pythagoras loved to speak of God and the world in numbers, and he pictured the soul as a self-moving number; Xenocrates followed. The point is not that soul equals a numeral, but that soul works among countable, many things, sorting them by form. Quantity is what number is; substance is what soul is — so soul is not number. Number breaks into discrete units; soul holds together. Number is even or odd; soul is neither. Add units and number grows; soul does not grow by addition. Soul moves itself; a fixed number does not. A number keeps one nature and cannot trade qualities; the soul stays one substance while passing from ignorance to knowledge and from vice to virtue. Therefore the soul is not number.
Greek · §2.4
Πυϑαγόρας δὲ συμβολικῶς εἰκάξειν ἀεὶ μπα σε. τ, Γρ πος Ἠρμ κοὶό παὶ τὸν Θεὸν καὶ πάντα τοῖς αριϑμοῖς εἰωθὼς, ὑμίσατο καὶ τὴν ψυχὲνν ἀριϑμὸν ἑαυτὸν κινοῦντα, ᾧ καὶ Ξενοκράπης Γκολούϑησεν. οὐχ ὅτι ἀριϑμός ἐστιν καὶ ψυχὴ, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι ἐν τοῖς ἀριϑμητοῖς ἐστι, καὶ ἐν τεῖς πεπληϑυσμένοις, καὶ ὅτι καὶ ψυχή ἐστιν ἡ διακρίουσα τὰ πράγματα, τῷ μορφὰς καὶ τύπους ἑκάστοις ἐπιβάλλειν. αὕτη γάρ ἐστιν, ἡ τὰ εἴδη ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδῶν χωρίζυσα, καὶ διάφορα αὐτὰ ἀποφαίνευσα, τῇ τε ἑτερότητι τῶν εἰδῶν καὶ τῷ πλήϑει ΥΑΚ, ΕΟΤ. ἘΤ ΑΝΊΜΑΣΥ. ἀρκεῖ ταῦτα 1 εἐρκεῖ καὶ ταῦτα. Ὁ... Α. α. 3. Μ. τ. αρκεῖ τ ταῦτα. ᾽Νῖς, Α. 1. Ένρο οἳ πῖον. αἲ ογεο, ροΐτεα γο]ιἠτ αι]άογο καί. ᾿Ἀρκεῖ δὲ ταῦτα. Ν. Ηπκὲ κ πιμἰες ΛΗ ἴαμε. ΝᾺ Όσο νἱάσιητ 1εμὐγίο: εἰρκούντως δὲ καὶ ταῦτα ἐκ πολλῶν ἀποδειξειε. Ναπι α ρεἰποιρίο αἠάῑι ζᾱ͵ ππεπι εἲ ἰη πε παει: νεὶ παος εκ πιη]εὶς αὐυπάο ἂςἀπνπ ]ο ἰπ ]α. ηιἱ ρεπίίαπι παζοπῖν τἰάεηιιις ]οσ) ε. Νανη καὶ αὐεῖε. Α.
Souls are not now created; Moses on God's rest§3.1
3.1Are souls still being made? If they arise now only by providence, not by creation, the account falters. Moses says God rested from all his works which he had begun to make (Genesis 2:2). Keep creating souls today and that rest is emptied. Make them by bodily succession instead and you drag them into the mortality of generated things. Both roads are absurd; so souls are not now coming to be. When it is said 'My Father is working still' (John 5:17), the sense is providence, not minting new soul-essences.
Greek · §3.1
κατέπαυσεν ὁ Θεὸς , απὸ πέντων τῶν ἔργων αἰτοῦ' ἄτοπα δὲ ἀμφέτερα" οὐκ ἄρα νῦν αἱ ψυχαὶ γίονται. τὸ γὰρ, ὁ πατίρ μου ἐργάζεται, οὐκ ἐπὶ τοῦ κτίζιν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ τοῦ προνοεῖν εἰρῆσϑαι, καὶ αὐτῷ δοκεῖ. ᾿Απολιναρίῳ ξὲ δοκεῖ, τοῖς ψυχὰς ἀπὸ τῶν ψυχῶν τίετεσϑαι, ὥςπερ ἀπὸ τῶν ωμάτων τὰ σώματα, προϊέναι γὰρ τὴν ψυχὴν κατὰ σακ.1πΟτ. ἘΤΑΝΙΜΑΌΥ. Ῥαθυ] ]α ζοπνοπῖι σάσι Ώναεεο Πάλιν ἔκιπεη τειμ-ἆι πιρκεν ᾖ. ο. ἀεί. αἱ ψυχαὶ γίνονται καὶ ᾷϑαρταί εἰσι 1 Ρυῖι ψυχαὶ αὐάΐτητε γένόνται, λόγω προνοίας. Ὁ. τ. Α:1.α. 3. ὅ]. 1. Όση. Ψα]]. Έγτβο αὐ υπο γίνονται αὖ αἴτάταμι αιίπα. Ουο . τπάβὶς ππήεοτ εἀπίοτεπι Ὀχοπίεπ αιίπε τεΕετὶ, ἕτασσθ οπηἰειῖε, Υ14ε ἐὐπὶ ῥ. 76. 77. Εεινοάινπι ε εχου ἱ ἰθε] τὸ μωσέως. Ὠ. 1. τὲ μωῦσέως. Α.τ. τῷ (80) μωσέως. Α. 3. τὸ τοῦ μωσίος. Α. 3. οὐκ ἀξα νῦν αἱ ψνχαὶ αἱ αἰνεῖι. Α. α. τῶν Ομηϊηεῖε. Όοῃ. Μοχ. πατήξ ου ἕως ἄρτι ἐργάφεται, Ν. ὁ πατής ου ἔτι ἐργάται. Α. 3. α1οά πιεῖ αμἰάόιι ποπ ἀῑ εβαπ᾿ τὼς σἰάοὑατηγ Νονποῖο, Όεριο πποάο. Όοπι. οὐκ ἐπὶ τοῦ κτίξειν κ. τ. λ.] Οοπο ια: ποπ ἂς οτεαιῖοπ, σι 11 νἰάοιυτ., απε ασηαἰεῖοο ἰη σταεσο, ηυοἆ Ψ] α ειἰασι εχργε[ῖλι, -. καὶ αὐτῶ δοκεῖ